Chapter 2: Literature Review

We have talked quite a bit about organizing the literature review, but a few key points to keep in mind. Do an outline! Start broad- what is the broadest topic that applies to the study? So for example if you are interested in the elderly's opinions of their physician – the broadest area is aging- start there and narrow it as you go.

Keep in mind that you are to synthesize the literature, meaning you are not making a list of the studies have been done. Instead, you are looking for commonalities between the studies. One way to think about this is that you are writing about the topic, using previous studies to support your arguments. Thus, if you are writing about a specific variable, let's say resilience, you will want to look at how others have examined the topic, the populations they have used, and what the results were. Let's use an example from my oldest old and physician paper (Stadtlander et al. 2013), here is the section on resilience:

Resilience moderates the negative effects of stress and promotes adaptation (Wagnild, 2009; Wagnild & Young, 1993), and is described as an enduring personality characteristic (Foster, 1997).  Nygren et al. (2005) suggested that the development of resilience constitutes a form of compensation for losses of functional capacity and physical health. Leppert, Gunzelmann, Schumacher, Strauss, and Brahler (2005) reported that higher scores on the resilience scale correlated with lower rates of subjective complaints, and has been associated with health-promoting behaviors (Wagnild, 2000).  Higher resilience has been found to be correlated with higher self-efficacy (Caltabiano & Caltabiano, 2006); it has also been found to be correlated with LOC in women with traumatic experiences (Friedman, 2009), but this relationship has not been previously examined using the Wagnild and Young scale in the oldest old [as in the current study].

There are a number of techniques used in this paragraph – in yellow highlight are ones in which other research has been used to support arguments. In blue highlight are where other researchers' conclusions are brought in. Green highlights are where the results from previous studies are given. Finally, pink highlight is where the current study is tied to previous work. 

In your paper, you will go into more detail, but the same techniques may be used. Remember, that you want to put your study into the context of the literature, so keep relating it back to your study.

Next time we will look at Chapter 2: Summary. Do you have an issue or a question that you would like me to discuss in a future post? Would you like to be a guest writer? Send me your ideas! leann.stadtlander@waldenu.edu

Stadtlander, L., Giles, M., Sickel, A., Brooks, E., Brown, C., Cormell, M., Ewing, L., Hart, D., Koons, D., Olson, C., Parker, P., Semenova, V., & Stoneking, S. (2013). Independent Living Oldest-Old and Their Primary Health Provider: A Mixed Method Examination of the Influence of Patient Personality Characteristics. Journal of Applied Gerontology. Advanced online publication. doi:  10.1177/0733464813482182

Chapter 2: Theories and Conceptual Framework

In Chapter 2, you will be expanding on the theories you mentioned in Chapter 1. This is where you go into the background of the theory, where did it come from and why was it developed? Talk about the major ideas of the theory, and go into some depth on how the theory has been applied in studies similar to yours (giving citations of course). Then you will want to discuss why you are using this theory as opposed to other ones. Finally, you will want to go into some detail as to how the theory relates to your study and to your research questions. What does the theory predict will happen in your study? Yes, you can have multiple theories, they should each offer different insights in your problem and each needs to be discussed. You will also want to compare and contrast the different theories' predictions.

You may also wish to discuss the conceptual framework of your study. As discussedpreviously, a conceptual framework is a less developed form of a theory and consists of statements that link abstract concepts, in psychology it is often described by the term "model." You can build your own conceptual model by thinking through how you think your variables are related to the main concept. Draw a picture of how you think the relationship works. Then think through what aspects you will be examining in your study. If you want to address this area in your paper, you will need to discuss other key theorists and researchers who have done related studies and how their results fit into your conceptual ideas. You will also want to discuss how the concept has been used previously in research; keeping in mind other researchers may only have examined a portion of the model. 

Next time we will examine the literature review. Do you have an issue or a question that you would like me to discuss in a future post? Would you like to be a guest writer? Send me your ideas! leann.stadtlander@waldenu.edu

Chapter 2: Literature Search Strategy

The next section in chapter 2 is the literature search strategy. This section will go easily if you kept track of all of your literature searches in your research journal. If not, you may need to rerun them. 

You need to walk your reader through how and where you did your literature search; you are demonstrating the thoroughness of your scholarship. List the databases you searched, they should go beyond the psychology ones, include academic search premier, Thoreau, perhaps education and medical ones, dissertations, and Google scholar. List the search terms that you used, and the combinations of keywords that you used.

One of the most common questions I get is how to do literature searches. A brief review: You need to think about both breadth and depth in your searches. Let's do an example together, let's say we are interested in the elderly and resilience. Some words to start with would be elderly, seniors, older adult, I would also try young-old, middle-old, and oldest old (these are terms you see in the literature). I would combine each of these with resilience. When I find relevant articles, I will check out their keywords and add those into my combinations.

If you have difficulty finding appropriate literature and terms, please talk to the Walden librarians. They are a wonderful resource and will give you all kinds of ideas that you have not considered. Keep track in your research journal: everyone you talk to, all literature searches, and everything you do related to your project. 

Next time we will examine Chapter 2: Theories and Conceptual Framework. Do you have an issue or a question that you would like me to discuss in a future post? Would you like to be a guest writer? Send me your ideas! leann.stadtlander@waldenu.edu

Chapter 2: Intro

The chapter 2 introduction sets the stage for your literature review. There are 3 main topics that need to be discussed in this section. 1) Restate the problem and purpose of the study; this should be a brief summary of these areas. You are putting the chapter into the context of your study for the reader.

2) Provide a concise synopsis of the current literature that establishes the relevance of the problem. The keyword here is concise. You are showing why your study is needed. So discuss very briefly the gap in the literature and how your study will address the gap. Yes, this is very similar info that you are asked to provide in chapter 1, but resist the impulse to simply copy things. Restate it in your own words; be sure to include relevant citation to support your arguments

3) Finally, preview the major sections of the chapter. Give your reader a picture of where you are going in the literature review.

By the end of the introductory section, your reader should understand why you are doing your study, why your specific study is needed, and where you are going in the literature review. 

Next time we will examine literature searches. Do you have an issue or a question that you would like me to discuss in a future post? Would you like to be a guest writer? Send me your ideas! leann.stadtlander@waldenu.edu

Webinar: Intro to Dissertation

Unexpected expenses

Our guest blogger today is Dr. Carol (Charlie) Barton. She is a PhD graduate of the College of Management and Technology. She is also a co-leader in a weekly doctoral student cohort.

Getting a doctoral degree is expensive. We remember to budget for the usual expenses: things like tuition, required residencies, and textbooks. This budgeting model works out pretty well as long as we are in the course based phase of our doctoral programs. As we begin working on our Premise, our Prospectus, and eventually our Final Study, we often discover unexpected expenses.

If you are having problems moving forward in your program, your Chair or Academic Advisor could recommend that you take one or more academic skills courses or attend a Dissertation Intensive. Other expenses include primary source books or other materials. Think about your research design before you commit to it. Does your design require specialized experts, a specific population, or software that is not available through Walden? If your research design does have these requirements, how can you design your research study and analytic methods to reduce future expenses?

Unexpected expenses often occur when collecting and analyzing data. Will you have to pay a fee to use a research instrument? It is better to price out this need while you are in the Premise stage, rather than get to the data collection phase and find out you cannot afford to use the instrument that you designed your study around. Your study methodology could require you to gather information using a service such as Survey Monkey. Survey Monkey has many pricing options, understanding these options when designing your study will help you keep costs down. Maybe you need to travel to meet your participants. Will you travel by car, bus, train, or airplane? Will you need to take time off from your regular employment?

Software and hardware represent other areas of unexpected expenses. You may want to purchase transcription or analytic software if you decide not to use a consultant. Are there trial versions of the software that you want to use? Always invest your time in a test drive, before you plunk down your dollars. Will you need to buy a digital recorder? Thumb drives for backing up your files? A lockable cabinet or safe? As you can see, the expenses can mount up quickly.

Don’t despair! Before you go out and buy something or engage expert services, sit down with your Chair. Walden has a lot of free resources. For example, go to the library and asked the librarian if you can borrow those primary source books. Don’t forget to talk to the Center for Research Quality during Open Office hours and ask their advice. Take advantage of every Writing Center resource, the Walden University blogs, and other social media resources.

Yes, getting a degree is expensive. With a little planning, you can make your dollars stretch further.

Next time we will examine Chapter 2: Intro. Do you have an issue or a question that you would like me to discuss in a future post? Would you like to be a guest writer? Send me your ideas! leann.stadtlander@waldenu.edu

Chapter 1: Summary

Students often treat the chapter 1 summary as a last minute add on- however, it is important in its own right. In the summary, you should briefly review the main points from your chapter and talk about what will be discussed in future chapters. Why do you have to do chapter summaries? The dissertation should not be looked on as a "paper," instead, it really is a book that you are writing. Just as a textbook has summaries at the end of each chapter and a preview of the next one to keep the reader interested, so should your dissertation. 

You need to keep your reader in the back of your mind, picture a future student, similar to you, who is trying to find out about your topic area and your study. Write clearly for him or her, explain your terms, your goal is not to impress them with your academic language- it is to educate them. Occasionally ask yourself, what is my future reader going to want to know? Have I explained it clearly? Let them be impressed with the clarity of your writing and your enthusiasm for the topic. 

Next time we will have a guest blogger. Do you have an issue or a question that you would like me to discuss in a future post? Would you like to be a guest writer? Send me your ideas! leann.stadtlander@waldenu.edu